History of the EU

The ideal of a united Europe existed for many years as an abstract idea in the minds of philosophers and visionaries. Before this idea turned into a real political project and became a long-term goal in the government policies of states, it was regarded more as a humanistic and peaceful dream.

Europe was the scene of frequent bloody wars for centuries. In particular, between 1870 and 1945, France and Germany clashed three times, and these wars resulted in massive loss of life. These devastating conflicts led some European leaders and thinkers to believe that the only way to establish lasting peace was through the economic and political unification of countries.

The foundations of a structure capable of overcoming national disputes in Europe were laid by resistance movements that fought against totalitarian regimes during the Second World War.

Schuman Plan

Following the Second World War, the effort of European statesmen to establish lasting peace on the continent gained momentum. In this context on 9 May 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman issued a proposal based on a plan prepared by former Secretary General of the League of Nations, Jean Monnet. Schuman invited European states to transfer the decision-making power over coal and steel production to an independent and supranational institution.

According to the Schuman Plan, in order to achieve lasting peace in Europe, the centuries-old rivalry and conflict between France and Germany had to come to an end. The way to achieve this goal was to unify the coal and steel production of these two countries under a common system, promote cooperation in these sectors, and develop this structure within a framework open to all European countries.

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

As a result of the Schuman Declaration, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established in 1951 with the participation of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Netherlands. Jean Monnet, who was also the inspiration behind this idea, was appointed as the first president of the executive body of the Community, known as the High Authority.

Thus, coal and steel, which were the raw materials of the war, became instruments for building peace. For the first time in history, states voluntarily transferred part of their sovereignty to a supranational institution.

Treaty of Rome and European Economic Community (EEC)

The six founding members of the ECSC expanded their cooperation and signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957 to establish the European Economic Community (EEC). The main goal of the EEC was to create a common market in which goods, workers, services, and capital could move freely, ultimately aiming for political integration.

European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)

Another institution established by the Treaty of Rome was the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). Coming into force on 1 January 1958, EURATOM was designed to ensure the peaceful and safe use of nuclear energy and to coordinate the research programs of member states.

Merger Treaty and European Communities

With the signing of the Merger Treaty (also known as the Fusion Treaty) in 1965, the executive bodies of the ECSC, EEC, and EURATOM were unified. As part of this arrangement, a single Council and a single Commission were established to serve all three communities. Following this unification, the entities came to be collectively referred to as the European Communities.

Customs Union

Customs duties on manufactured goods within the European Community were abolished earlier than planned, on 1 July 1968. By the end of the 1960s, common policies, especially in agriculture and trade, became largely institutionalized.

First Enlargement Wave

The success of the six founding countries (the “Six”) encouraged the United Kingdom, Denmark and Ireland to apply for membership. However, under the leadership of President General de Gaulle, France vetoed the UK’s application twice, in 1963 and 1967. After lengthy negotiations, all three countries joined the Community in 1973.

1980s: Southern Enlargement of the Community

The Community expanded southwards with the accession of Greece in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986. This brought the total number of member states to twelve.

Single European Act

In the early 1980s, global economic stagnation and disagreements over the distribution of financial burdens created an atmosphere of “European pessimism” within the Community. However, starting in 1984, this mood gave way to more optimistic expectations regarding the revival of the integration process.

Under the leadership of European Commission President Jacques Delors, the Community adopted the goal of establishing a single market by 1 January 1993, based on the White Paper published in 1985. The legal foundation of this process was the Single European Act, signed on 17 February 1986, by Germany, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, Luxembourg, and Portugal; and on 28 February 1986, by Denmark, Italy, and Greece.

Entering into force in 1987, the Single European Act introduced extensive amendments to the Treaties establishing the European Communities. It provided institutional momentum to the completion of the single market and the path toward political integration.

Maastricht Treaty and the European Union

The fall of the Berlin Wall, the reunification of Germany on 3 November 1990, the end of Soviet control over Central and Eastern European countries and democratisation of these countries, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 profoundly transformed the political landscape of Europe.

In light of these developments, the member states of the European Community, determined to strengthen their ties further, decided to embark on a new phase of integration. At the European Council held in Maastricht on 9-10 December 1991, agreement was reached on the core elements of a new treaty.

The resulting agreement, known as the Maastricht Treaty or officially the Treaty on European Union, entered into force on 1 November 1993.

Under the Treaty, member states decided to complete monetary union by 1999, establish the concept of European citizenship, develop a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and create mechanisms for cooperation in justice and home affairs.

The Maastricht Treaty also introduced the three-pillar structure of the European Union:

• First Pillar: European Communities (ECSC, EEC and EURATOM)
• Second Pillar: Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
• Third Pillar: Cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs

With this structural change, European integration expanded beyond its economic foundation to include political and security dimensions.

A New Enlargement: Austria, Finland, Sweden

In 1995, with the participation of Austria, Finland and Sweden, the number of EU member states increased to 15.

Economic and Monetary Union

The Euro, Europe’s common currency, officially entered into circulation on 1 January 2002 and was adopted by 12 countries at its launch.

The Latest Waves of Enlargement

In 2004, the largest enlargement in the history of the European Union took place, and 10 new countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) joined the European Union.

This was followed by the accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, increasing the number of member states to 27.

Finally, Croatia joined the European Union in 2013, bringing the total number of member states to 28.

The Treaty of Lisbon

The most recent significant step in the deepening process of the European Union was the Lisbon Treaty, signed in 2007 and entered into force in 2009. The main objective of this Treaty was to overcome the decision-making deadlocks within the European Union and to transform the Union into a more democratic and effective structure. In line with this goal, comprehensive reforms were introduced, including the renaming of the Treaty establishing the European Community to the “Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union”.

The 2008 Global Financial Crisis and the European Union

The global financial crisis that emerged in 2008 and spread across the world had a severe impact on EU member states as well. The crisis gave rise to a range of economic and financial problems, such as increase in public deficits, decline in competitiveness, rise in unemployment rates, and sluggish economic growth. The negative effects of the crisis were felt particularly deeply in the Eurozone where the economy contracted by 4.1% in 2009, marking the deepest recession in its history.

To mitigate the effects of the crisis and enhance resilience against future shocks, the European Union introduced several mechanisms, including the Europe 2020 Strategy, the European Financial Stability Mechanism (EFSM), the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), the European Semester, the Euro Plus Pact, the Six Pack, the European Stability Mechanism (ESM), and the Banking Union.

Additionally, to ensure a more effective and coordinated conduct of the European Union’s foreign policy, the European External Action Service (EEAS) was established on 26 July 2010. The EEAS assists the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy in implementing the European Union’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The Service is composed of personnel from the relevant departments of the Council and the European Commission, as well as from the diplomatic services of the member states.

In 2012, the European Union was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which was presented on 10 December 2012, in recognition of its contributions to peace, reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe.  

Multiple Crises of the European Union

Although the European Union entered a phase of economic recovery following the Eurozone crisis, it has since confronted several major challenges, including the irregular migration crisis, Brexit, and the rise of far-right and populist movements.

The irregular migration crisis, which erupted in 2015, raised fundamental questions about the functioning of the Schengen Area and revealed serious disagreements among member states. To mitigate the impact of the crisis, the European Union reached an agreement with Türkiye on 18 March 2016. The “one for one” deal implemented under the EU-Turkey Statement has significantly reduced the migration flow to the European Union via the Aegean Sea and prevented the loss of migrants’ lives.

Another major challenge was the Brexit decision, with the 52% of British voters opting to leave the EU in the referendum held on 23 June 2016. Then-Prime Minister Theresa May formally notified the EU of the UK’s intention to withdraw on 29 March 2017. Although a political declaration on Brexit was approved by EU member states on 25 November 2018, the absence of consensus in the UK Parliament over the terms of withdrawal led to the postponement of the Brexit deadline to 31 October 2019 following the European Council of 10 April 2019. After a prolonged uncertainty, the United Kingdom officially left the EU on 31 January 2020.

A transition period began with the Withdrawal Agreement, which came into force on 1 February 2020. During this period, the UK remained subject to EU rules and jurisdiction and continued to contribute to the EU budget until 31 December 2020. This phase also paved the way for a second round of negotiations in order to define the future relationship between the two parties.

In addition to all these developments, far-right movements gained momentum on the political scene, fuelled by the crisis environment and driven largely by rhetoric based on xenophobia and opposition to the European Union. The failure of mainstream parties to develop alternative discourses further deepened the problems across Europe.

The COVID-19 pandemic, which began affecting Europe in 2020, posed another major challenge for the European Union. It not only threatened public health but also triggered a severe economic downturn. In response, the European Union adopted a €750 billion recovery fund, largely composed of grants, upon the proposal of the European Commission. Additionally, a joint vaccine procurement program was launched to ensure equal access to vaccines for all member states, marking a significant step forward in the area of public health cooperation.

Finally, the Russia-Ukraine war has evolved into not just a security crisis for Europe, but also a significant turning point. This has made it necessary for the European Union to strengthen its partnerships and formulate new policies in key areas such as security and defense, energy, economy and migration.

Seeking Solutions in the European Union: The Conference on the Future of Europe

The European Union has faced numerous challenges in recent years, including the financial crisis, Brexit, irregular migration, the rise of far-right and populist movements, and tensions in transatlantic relations. The deepening of these crises has deepened divisions within the European Union (among member states, European Union institutions, citizens, NGOs, etc.) as well as structural weaknesses, leading to serious debates about the functioning and future of the Union.

In addition to these internal challenges, shifts in the international order and an increasingly uncertain environment have significantly affected the European Union, as well as the global system. This situation has underscored the need for the European Union to restructure itself to adapt to changing circumstances and to strengthen its global role. In this context, several initiatives have been launched in recent years to discuss the European Union's future and to outline a roadmap for its reform.

This process began with the declaration issued following the Bratislava Summit on 16 September 2016, and gained momentum with the Rome Declaration adopted on the 60th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome on 25 March 2017, as well as the Sibiu Declaration, published on 9 May 2019. These declarations laid the foundation for reform efforts while reaffirming a commitment to European integration.

One of the key initiatives developed within this framework was the Conference on the Future of Europe. Proposed by French President Emmanuel Macron, the Conference was designed as a platform for discussing the future of Europe with direct citizen participation. The official launch of the Conference took place in a hybrid format on 9 May 2021, Europe Day. The main goal of the Conference was described as “ensuring the discussion of all matters affecting the daily lives of European Union citizens and making Europe a better place for everyone”.

Participants in the Conference included EU citizens, European Union institutions, national, regional, and local authorities, as well as civil society organizations. The activities of the Conference were carried out through four main components: “Multilingual Digital Platform”, “European Citizens’ Panels”, “Decentralized Events”, and “Plenary Sessions”.

Throughout this process, thousands of local and national events were organized, enabling the collection of wide range of views and suggestions.

The Conference concluded on 9 May 2022, with a closing ceremony held in Strasbourg on Europe Day. The final report issued at the end of the Conference focused on 49 proposals for reforming European Union institutions and mechanisms. These proposals addressed key areas including climate change and the environment, health, a stronger economy, social justice, and jobs, a stronger European Union in the world, values, rights, and the rule of law, security, digital transformation, European democracy, migration, education, culture, youth, and sports.

The Conference on the Future of Europe is regarded as a concrete example of the European Union’s effort to evolve into a more citizen-centred, participatory, and democratic structure.

Click here for more information about the Conference on the Future of Europe.

Recent Developments in the European Union

In response to the multiple crises it has faced in recent years, the European Union is reassessing many of its policies, focusing on foreign, security, and defence policies, as well as the areas of green and digital transformation, with the aim of adapting to shifting global dynamics. Through the publication of various strategic documents, the European Union seeks to enhance its resilience in the face of these challenges.

The outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war, in particular, has increased the importance of comprehensive security policies, leading to accelerated efforts in this area. Key initiatives launched within this framework include the Competitiveness Compass, the 2030 White Paper for European Defense – Readiness 2030, the ReArm Europe Plan, the European Preparedness Union Strategy, the Global Gateway Initiative and the International Digital Strategy.

These initiatives primarily aim to strengthen the European Union’s security and defense capabilities, support the defense industry, enhance economic security, maintain global competitiveness, reduce energy dependence, secure supply chains and promote technological developments and innovation.

Each year in September, the President of the European Commission delivers the “State of the Union” address to the European Parliament. This address reviews the challenges and accomplishments of the past year from the perspective of the European Union and sets out priorities and roadmap for the year to come.

Click here to access the 2025 “State of the Union” speech delivered by European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen.

In the coming period, the European Union is expected to continue reviewing and adapting its policies in reponse to global and regional developments and to take further steps accordingly.

Click here to access the European Commission’s page on the history of the European Union.